Few scientists in history are said to be as controversially viewed as is Robert Oppenheimer. A brilliant and highly successful theoretical physicist, his contributions to the field of nuclear weaponry can never
be forgotten. Remembered as the scientist who directed the Manhattan Project and therefore instigated the invention and first usage of the atom bomb, Oppenheimer is seen by history in a variety of moral lights. However, Oppenheimer himself could not have been more questioning of his own ethics than have been his many differing critics and admirers. Vehemently opposing the Nazi party and trying to put and end to Hitler’s power with the atom bomb, Oppenheimer would later be accused by his own country of communist sympathies during the McCarthy Trials. The validity of this accusation, along with the ethics behind his contribution to the atom bomb, has been a major topic of dissension for the way history should reflect upon Robert Oppenheimer as both a scientist and as a leader.¹
Insight and Influences
Robert Oppenheimer’s achievements in the field of physics were greatly influenced by and linked to the time period in which he lived.
Image courtesty of http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/webpics/J_Robert_Oppenheimer.jpg
Oppenheimer’s most famous achievement was his direction of the Manhattan Project during World War II. Toward the end of the Second World War, the race between nations to develop the atom bomb became more and more competitive as the outcome of the war was pulled into question. Oppenheimer, a Jewish-American, was especially concerned with the continuing aggression and destruction caused by Germany and its allies. Without this clear push for what Oppenheimer saw as a weapon necessary for the Allies’ victory in the war, Oppenheimer questioned whether he would have ever felt it moral to apply his scientific brilliance to a tool with such potential for harm. However, the desperation the country was beginning to feel to end the war convinced him that such an invention was the only clear way to create, for a time, a safer world.¹⁵
Oppenheimer was also affected significantly by the strong anti-communist feelings existing in the United States after World War II. During this time, there was a surge of trials led by Senator Joe McCarthy involving many famous politicians, entertainers, and other public figures which accused them of having communist sympathies. However, most of these accusations are now believed to have been the fabricated results of jingoism. Although Oppenheimer did involve himself in the study of some communist or leftist political parties in his youth, it is doubtful that he carried any of these sympathies into his later years or into his career. Oppenheimer was also defended in his trial by many other renowned scientists. However, the subject, like many of the McCarthy Trials, remains disputed and unclear. Whether or not these accusations had any validity, the trials nevertheless severely impacted Oppenheimer’s public image.²
Major Contributions
Robert Oppenheimer made many significant contributions to the field of physics. His first contributions were mainly papers that focused on theoretical physics. Oppenheimer’s findings in these studies helped later scientists to discover the neutron, the neutron star, the positron, and the meson. These papers also helped to establish Oppenheimer as a leading theoretical physicist during his time period. However, Oppenheimer’s most significant contribution to physics occurred in 1942 when he was appointed director of the Manhattan Project. This project was developed by President Roosevelt in a race between the two opposing sides of World War II to split the atom and develop a nuclear bomb. While developing the atom bomb, Oppenheimer had to manage more than three thousand people around the country. This was especially difficult because the research had to be conducted with the utmost secrecy, and most of the different people working on it could not be informed of the bomb’s overall progress. In addition to this challenging management, Oppenheimer also had to try to fix both the theoretical and mechanical problems that occurred throughout the project. However, the bomb was at last successful and helped to quickly end the Second World War. Oppenheimer later chaired the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission until his opposition to creating a more powerful hydrogen bomb fueled rumors accusing him of communist sympathies. However, Oppenheimer later wrote often about issues concerning intellectual ethics and morality. All these contributions have helped to further scientific thought for many decades and will probably continue to do so in the future.⁴
Affect and Effect
Robert Oppenheimer was born in New York City on April 22, 1904. His father, Julius, was a Jewish immigrant from Germany who had become wealthy working with a family business that imported textiles. His mother Ella, also a German immigrant, was an artist who had studied for a time in Paris and was teaching art in her own New York studio when she met Julius Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer’s mother’s influence may have been what gave him his lifelong interest in art and philosophy in addition to the sciences. Oppenheimer first attended the Ethical Cultural School in New York and later went to Harvard University. He graduated in three years and went to Cambridge to conduct experimental research with J.J. Thomson. However, Oppenheimer found that he preferred theoretical study to experimental research and later went to the University of Gottenburg in Germany to study theoretical physics with Max Born. Oppenheimer was successful at the university and soon achieved his doctorate with a dissertation on the continuous spectrum. During this time, Oppenheimer and Born also published a paper on the quantum theory of molecules called the “Born-Oppenheimer Approximation” which is still consulted today. He afterward went on to teach at Harvard, the California Institute of Technology, and the University of California, Berkeley. Although Oppenheimer was invited to Copenhagen to work with Niels Bohr, he instead chose to visit Zurich, Switzerland, where he worked with Wolfgang Pauli on quantum field theory and the continuous spectrum. All these experiences helped Oppenheimer develop the basis for his knowledge of atomic particles.³ Oppenheimer’s family ancestry and political views had a significant impact on his professional life and works. Since his family was Jewish, Oppenheimer had a much more personal interest in the genocide inflicted by the Nazis on the Jewish population in Europe during the Second World War than most Americans did. This concern was one of the key factors in his decision to leading the creation of the atomic bomb, his most important and most famous contribution to physics. His political views, though they impacted his works less, severely affected his public image and his reputation as a physicist. During his mid-twenties, when Oppenheimer was a professor at Berkeley, he became involved in several left-wing political organizations. He also made some monetary contributions to groups supporting the communist party, although these contributions were few and far between. After the outbreak of World War II, Oppenheimer dropped these organizations and instead focused intently on his work. However, during the 1950s Oppenheimer was accused of communism during the McCarthy trials with these donations used as testimony against him. Although he no longer supported the communist party, these trials did cause his reputation to suffer and decreased his influence as a leading scientist during the latter years of his life.⁴
The Things He Left Behind
Robert Oppenheimer’s impact on physics has been revolutionary, significant, and lasting. He is best remembered for heading the Manhattan Project, which resulted in the first atom bomb’s creation and use. This contribution of his has already had many important effects on the modern world, and will inevitably have more in the future. Its most immediate effect was the end of World War II and the restoration of peace to the world, which was Oppenheimer’s immediate goal. However, the creation of an atomic bomb also led to the potential for more intense and dangerous warfare between nations. The Cold War between Russia and the United State, for instance, was based on the threat of one country bombing another severely. While the practice of mutually assured destruction kept a war from breaking out in that instance, it has certainly not solved every problem associated with nuclear weaponry.²
Although mutually assured destruction can effectively keep peace if nations are careful, the fear of one nation sending an atomic bomb at another is now more serious than ever. This is because one bomb from one country could set off a chain reaction and result in a widespread destruction. The threat of a country with a dictatorial or unstable government coming into possession of a nuclear bomb is a threat that exists because of Oppenheimer’s initial atomic bomb. However, Oppenheimer himself knew of the dangers involved in his invention while he lived. In fact, he once said, in a speech given not long after the first atomic bombs were dropped, “The peoples of this world must unite, or they will perish. This war, that has ravished so much of this earth, has written these words. The atomic bomb has spelled them out for all (humans) to understand.”⁶ Although the threat of nuclear warfare is still always in the future, Oppenheimer, if he were here today, would probably be pleased to learn that no widespread destruction has occurred on Earth yet that can be entirely credited to the abuse of the atomic bomb. It can be hoped that this will continue to be the case.¹
Robert Oppenheimer
Few scientists in history are said to be as controversially viewed as is Robert Oppenheimer. A brilliant and highly successful theoretical physicist, his contributions to the field of nuclear weaponry can never
Table of Contents
Insight and Influences
Robert Oppenheimer’s achievements in the field of physics were greatly influenced by and linked to the time period in which he lived.
Oppenheimer was also affected significantly by the strong anti-communist feelings existing in the United States after World War II. During this time, there was a surge of trials led by Senator Joe McCarthy involving many famous politicians, entertainers, and other public figures which accused them of having communist sympathies. However, most of these accusations are now believed to have been the fabricated results of jingoism. Although Oppenheimer did involve himself in the study of some communist or leftist political parties in his youth, it is doubtful that he carried any of these sympathies into his later years or into his career. Oppenheimer was also defended in his trial by many other renowned scientists. However, the subject, like many of the McCarthy Trials, remains disputed and unclear. Whether or not these accusations had any validity, the trials nevertheless severely impacted Oppenheimer’s public image.²
Major Contributions
Robert Oppenheimer made many significant contributions to the field of physics. His first contributions were mainly papers that focused on theoretical physics. Oppenheimer’s findings in these studies helped later scientists to discover the neutron, the neutron star, the positron, and the meson. These papers also helped to establish Oppenheimer as a leading theoretical physicist during his time period. However, Oppenheimer’s most significant contribution to physics occurred in 1942 when he was appointed director of the Manhattan Project. This project was developed by President Roosevelt in a race between the two opposing sides of World War II to split the atom and develop a nuclear bomb. While developing the atom bomb, Oppenheimer had to manage more than three thousand people around the country. This was especially difficult because the research had to be conducted with the utmost secrecy, and most of the different people working on it could not be informed of the bomb’s overall progress. In addition to this challenging management, Oppenheimer also had to try to fix both the theoretical and mechanical problems that occurred throughout the project. However, the bomb was at last successful and helped to quickly end the Second World War. Oppenheimer later chaired the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission until his opposition to creating a more powerful hydrogen bomb fueled rumors accusing him of communist sympathies. However, Oppenheimer later wrote often about issues concerning intellectual ethics and morality. All these contributions have helped to further scientific thought for many decades and will probably continue to do so in the future.⁴
Affect and Effect
Robert Oppenheimer was born in New York City on April 22, 1904. His father, Julius, was a Jewish immigrant from Germany who had become wealthy working with a family business that imported textiles. His mother Ella, also a German immigrant, was an artist who had studied for a time in Paris and was teaching art in her own New York studio when she met Julius Oppenheimer. Oppenheimer’s mother’s influence may have been what gave him his lifelong interest in art and philosophy in addition to the sciences. Oppenheimer first attended the Ethical Cultural School in New York and later went to Harvard University. He graduated in three years and went to Cambridge to conduct experimental research with J.J. Thomson. However, Oppenheimer found that he preferred theoretical study to experimental research and later went to the University of Gottenburg in Germany to study theoretical physics with Max Born. Oppenheimer was successful at the university and soon achieved his doctorate with a dissertation on the continuous spectrum. During this time, Oppenheimer and Born also published a paper on the quantum theory of molecules called the “Born-Oppenheimer Approximation” which is still consulted today. He afterward went on to teach at Harvard, the California Institute of Technology, and the University of California, Berkeley. Although Oppenheimer was invited to Copenhagen to work with Niels Bohr, he instead chose to visit Zurich, Switzerland, where he worked with Wolfgang Pauli on quantum field theory and the continuous spectrum. All these experiences helped Oppenheimer develop the basis for his knowledge of atomic particles.³Oppenheimer’s family ancestry and political views had a significant impact on his professional life and works. Since his family was Jewish, Oppenheimer had a much more personal interest in the genocide inflicted by the Nazis on the Jewish population in Europe during the Second World War than most Americans did. This concern was one of the key factors in his decision to leading the creation of the atomic bomb, his most important and most famous contribution to physics. His political views, though they impacted his works less, severely affected his public image and his reputation as a physicist. During his mid-twenties, when Oppenheimer was a professor at Berkeley, he became involved in several left-wing political organizations. He also made some monetary contributions to groups supporting the communist party, although these contributions were few and far between. After the outbreak of World War II, Oppenheimer dropped these organizations and instead focused intently on his work. However, during the 1950s Oppenheimer was accused of communism during the McCarthy trials with these donations used as testimony against him. Although he no longer supported the communist party, these trials did cause his reputation to suffer and decreased his influence as a leading scientist during the latter years of his life.⁴
The Things He Left Behind
Robert Oppenheimer’s impact on physics has been revolutionary, significant, and lasting. He is best remembered for heading the Manhattan Project, which resulted in the first atom bomb’s creation and use. This contribution of his has already had many important effects on the modern world, and will inevitably have more in the future. Its most immediate effect was the end of World War II and the restoration of peace to the world, which was Oppenheimer’s immediate goal. However, the creation of an atomic bomb also led to the potential for more intense and dangerous warfare between nations. The Cold War between Russia and the United State, for instance, was based on the threat of one country bombing another severely. While the practice of mutually assured destruction kept a war from breaking out in that instance, it has certainly not solved every problem associated with nuclear weaponry.²
Although mutually assured destruction can effectively keep peace if nations are careful, the fear of one nation sending an atomic bomb at another is now more serious than ever. This is because one bomb from one country could set off a chain reaction and result in a widespread destruction. The threat of a country with a dictatorial or unstable government coming into possession of a nuclear bomb is a threat that exists because of Oppenheimer’s initial atomic bomb. However, Oppenheimer himself knew of the dangers involved in his invention while he lived. In fact, he once said, in a speech given not long after the first atomic bombs were dropped, “The peoples of this world must unite, or they will perish. This war, that has ravished so much of this earth, has written these words. The atomic bomb has spelled them out for all (humans) to understand.”⁶ Although the threat of nuclear warfare is still always in the future, Oppenheimer, if he were here today, would probably be pleased to learn that no widespread destruction has occurred on Earth yet that can be entirely credited to the abuse of the atomic bomb. It can be hoped that this will continue to be the case.¹
References
1. http://ohst.berkeley.edu/oppenheimer/exhibit/chapter1.html]]
2, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/peopleevents/pandeAMEX65.html
3. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/baoppe.html
4. http://www.answers.com/topic/j-robert-oppenheimer
5. http://www.achievement.org/achievers/pau0/large/pau0-018.jpg
6. http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/webpics/J_Robert_Oppenheimer.jpg
7. http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/j/j_robert_oppenheimer.html